doi: 10.1097/00063198-200311000-00005, Sanghavi, M., and Rutherford, J. D. (2014). Am. Dev. 17. Progressive increase in arterial oxygen tension from 20 to 220 mm Hg resulted in progressive decrease in baseline heart rate and baseline arterial blood pressure indicating presence of chemoreceptor activity over this wide range of arterial oxygen tension. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2012900118, Urfer-Maurer, N., Ludyga, S., Stalder, T., Brand, S., Holsboer-Trachsler, E., Gerber, M., et al. 23, 233246. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.09.212. Which intrinsic homeostatic response is the fetus demonstrating when abrupt variable decelerations are present? Cardiovascular System - Spleen Development - Embryology. Zeskind, P. S., and Gingras, J. L. (2006). (2007). Moreover, maternal psychopathology influences HRV tracking also after birth, showing a higher mean HR and lower vagal modulation and confirming the impact of this prenatal disorder on vagal neurodevelopment (Dierckx et al., 2009). Prenatal alcohol exposure also impacts the limbic-HPA axis development and functioning, leading to disrupted cortisol response (Ouellet-Morin et al., 2011). (2019). Maternal stress during pregnancy alters fetal ANS by entraining fetal heart rate (fHR) with maternal HR decelerations during respiratory effort (Lobmaier et al., 2020). Mol. Pediatr. Available online at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470566/ (accessed February 22, 2021). doi: 10.1007/BF00315698, Multon, O., Senat, M.-V., Minoui, S., Hue, M.-V., Frydman, R., and Ville, Y. Biol. Women's experiences of pregnancy related pelvic girdle pain: a systematic review. Sleep and brain development: the critical role of sleep in fetal and early neonatal brain development. The thermoregulatory theory of yawning: what we know from over 5 years of research. The presence or absence of moderate variability did not modify the relationship even when moderate variability was always present.40. doi: 10.1007/s12519-019-00240-8, Gokozan, H. N., Baig, F., Corcoran, S., Catacutan, F. P., Gygli, P. E., Takakura, A. C., et al. The human brain at stage 16, including the initial evagination of the neurohypophysis. As a consequence, by relying on appropriate animal models, several authors have defined potential critical windows related to human brain development (see, for instance, Figure 1 in Morrison et al., 2018). Baroreceptor An infant was delivered via cesarean. It has been reported in these cases a correlation with deficit in fetal growth, adverse outcomes for labor and birth, and even preterm birth (Lee and Gay, 2004; Micheli et al., 2011; Zafarghandi et al., 2012; Warland et al., 2018). 336, 287297. The occupational and environmental exposure to pollution may be another important disrupting factor for fetal ANS development. Pediatr. Cerebral cortical autonomic connectivity in low-risk term newborns. doi: 10.1093/humrep/der437, Soma-Pillay, P., Nelson-Piercy, C., Tolppanen, H., and Mebazaa, A. Drugs to Support Fetal Growth Synthetic glucocorticoids (sGCs) are the therapy of choice to support fetal maturation for the risk of preterm delivery. Gender-related differences in fetal heart rate during first trimester. (2004). (2019). 840, 4550. Social interactions, including skin-to-skin contact between mother and newborns, help increase ANS maturation as well as stress responsivity and circadian rhythms, in particular in preterm infants (Ulmer Yaniv et al., 2021). Coll. Factors that modulate fetal anaerobic reserve are myocardial glycogen stores, placental exchange capacity and chronic hypoxia. These situations increase the risk of impairment of fetal brain development resulting in emotional, behavioral, and/or cognitive problems in later life (Glover, 2015; Antonelli et al., 2021). When this happens, a prompt C-section is normally the method of choice. Res. Parer JT, Ikeda T. A framework for standardized management of intrapartum fetal heart rate patterns.Am J Obstet Gynecol. Obstructive sleep apnea in pregnancy and fetal outcome. Sci. J Dev Physiol. Uchitel, J., Vanhatalo, S., and Austin, T. (2021). doi: 10.1164/rccm.201911-2127LE, Aldrete-Cortez, V., Poblano, A., Tafoya, S. A., Ramrez-Garca, L. A., and Casasola, C. (2019). doi: 10.1016/j.ajog.2019.04.029, Flenady, V., Ellwood, D., Bradford, B., Coory, M., Middleton, P., Gardener, G., et al. In a series of sheep experiments they applied 60 second complete cord compressions every 5 minutes in one group and an identical cord compression every 2.5 minutes in a second group. Breastfeed. Nonetheless, the importance of ANS and vagus nerve regulation in fetal and neonatal development is still underrepresented (Sadler, 2012; Moore et al., 2016). doi: 10.1093/sleep/27.7.1405, Podymow, T., and August, P. (2008). Although CS delivery is far faster than a vaginal birth modality, the fetus is still subjected to significant stress that can create changes in the development of some systems, including the ANS (Tribe et al., 2018). (2016). BJOG. This increases the flow of deoxygenated blood to your heart and body, including your uterus and placenta. Neonatal Individ. 89, 584590. doi: 10.1038/s41390-018-0155-0, Mulkey, S. B., Hitchings, L., Persaud, R., Kota, S., Maxwell, G. L., Baker, R., et al. Cahill AG, Tuuli MG, Stout MJ, Lpez JD, Macones GA. A prospective cohort study of fetal heart rate monitoring: deceleration area is predictive of fetal acidemia. Period Med. (2020). 18, 359379. (1998). Natl. An examination of changes in maternal neuroimmune function during pregnancy and the postpartum period. Dev. Fetal neurobehavioral effects of exposure to methadone or buprenorphine. These pathologies can dysregulate the neuroendocrine axis, altering, in particular, the cortisol production (Wilder, 1998; Sheng et al., 2020) and, thus, affecting sympathovagal balance development. 22, 158168. N. Y. Acad. 9, 17641773. Your doctor might administer oxygen in response to late decelerations. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01099.x, DiPietro, J. Oxytocin promotes functional coupling between paraventricular nucleus and both sympathetic and parasympathetic cardioregulatory nuclei. Norepinephrine binds to beta receptors in the heart causing an increase in heart rate, contractility and stroke volume. Am. 17, 354381. Regarding the vagus nerve, at this stage, the dorsal motor nucleus is the predominantly active effector center (Porges, 2011). Cerebral modulation of the autonomic nervous system in term infants. Physiol. Clin. 53, 330340. Even if further research is needed, maternal vitamin D intake deficit correlates with altered metabolic and contractile development of the heart and the control mechanisms of blood pressure in fetuses (Morris et al., 1995; Gale et al., 2008). Regulation of firing rate homeostasis constitutes a fundamental property of central neural circuits. Central autonomic network mediates cardiovascular responses to acute inflammation: relevance to increased cardiovascular risk in depression? Maternal malnutrition has an impact also on the endocrine system development: the fetus is overexposed to maternal cortisol, due to the lack of placental control systems (Allen, 2001; Seckl and Meaney, 2004), and the fetal HPA axis can be impaired, possibly leading to a dysregulation of sympathovagal balance and inflammatory set point (Christian and Stewart, 2010). Teratol. doi: 10.1016/j.placenta.2016.12.003, Persson, M., Winkvist, A., Dahlgren, L., and Mogren, I. Dev. These late decelerations were not associated with fetal acidosis. Autonomic nervous system regulation of baseline heart rate in the fetal lamb. Reprod. Hence, measuring HRV during different sleep states can help better assess ANS development (Yiallourou et al., 2012; Dereymaeker et al., 2017). Indeed, ANS responsiveness seems to remain quite low even when preterm infants reach term-equivalent ages compared to full-term newborns (Mulkey et al., 2018; Patural et al., 2019; Schlatterer et al., 2021). Immunol. Gynaecol. Ultimately, any influence on heart rate is mediated by one or more of these structures. Moreover, the heartbeat can be heard through ultrasound as early as the 6th WGA, the HR accelerates constantly during the first 8 WGA (Rodgers et al., 2015) and it was recently discovered that an intrinsic fHRV (i.e., due to sino-atrial node rhythms) existsit can affect the global fHRV and be influenced by pregnancy events (e.g., hypoxia) (Frasch et al., 2020a) and it shows a specific signature, that is, specific HRV metrics (Herry et al., 2019). Obstet. Med. Obstet. Electronic fetal monitoring-prevention or rescue? Fine scale differences within the vagal neural crest for enteric nervous system formation. ArXiv200108264 Q-Bio. Am. doi: 10.1088/0967-3334/35/10/1943, Schmidt, W., Cseh, I., Hara, K., and Kubli, F. (1984). doi: 10.1084/jem.20180794, PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar, Abrams, R. M., and Gerhardt, K. J. Neuropharmacol. doi: 10.1159/000475744, Patural, H., Pichot, V., Flori, S., Giraud, A., Franco, P., Pladys, P., et al. Pharmacol. Fetal neurobehavioral development: a tale of two cities. Dev. [Epub ahead of print]. Since, according to the Polyvagal theory (Beauchaine et al., 2007), the social/emotional development is related to the vagal system, any insult such as maternal distress suffered during the autonomic trajectory development will interfere with the maturation of the cerebral cortices structures and of the ANS disrupting the development of the Social Engagement System of the child (Porges and Furman, 2011). doi: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2015.09.001, Nuriel-Ohayon, M., Neuman, H., and Koren, O. Hypothermia Temp. Pathologic fetal acidemia. Available online at: https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/Neural_System_Development (Accessed April 23, 2021). In this paragraph, we will consider the studies that simulate the 1st stage of labor. 446, 2233. Decelerations were present when there was mild hypertension during the compression but they were also present when marked hypotension accompanied the compression. 2003 Mar; 188(3):820-3. Maternal pathologies influence the onset of altered neurodevelopment patterns during fetal life, which could lead to actual neurologic disorders during childhood (Faa et al., 2016; Vohr et al., 2017). Front. Eur. The effect of maternal, labor, and fetal factors upon fetal heart rate during the intrapartum period. PLoS ONE 9:e108119. Human fetal behavior: 100 years of study. Gynecol. a. 9, 7685. Cochrane Database Syst. Mayo Clin. However, SNS hyperactivity during labor is unlikely to manifest like myocardial infarction, as sympathetic CAM increases simultaneously with HRV metrics related to PNS (Musa et al., 2017). doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2534-15.2016, Gogou, M., Haidopoulou, K., and Pavlou, E. (2019). Endorphin-mediated increases in pain threshold during pregnancy. Here we demonstrate that two A-type potassium channel genes, shal and shaker, are reciprocally, transcriptionally coupled to maintain A-type channel expression. Med. Maternal vitamin D status during pregnancy and child outcomes. Perinatol. Full-time exposure to occupational noise during pregnancy was associated with reduced birth weight in a nationwide cohort study of Swedish women. Its dominance results in what effect to the FHR baseline? 13, 245254. (2020). Psychopathol. Gynecol. Psychol. Fetal development assessed by heart rate patternstime scales of complex autonomic control. Hypotension and uterine hypertonia, for instance, can create significant imbalances in the fHRV during epidural analgesia in labor (Lavin, 1982). J. Obstet. doi: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01137.x, Oguch, O., and Steer, P. (1998). J. Exp. 4, 7182. Pediatr. From 7 to 8 WGA gray and white matter differentiate and, by the end of the 1st trimester, after the embryo has become a fetus, it is possible to recognize all the main brain structures, including the choroid plexus, thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, basal ganglia, corpus callosum, brainstem nuclei, cerebellum, and the neural plate of the insula (Moore et al., 2016; Hill, 2021b). Natl. (2020). (2009). doi: 10.5830/CVJA-2016-021. From maternal diet to neurodevelopmental disorders: a story of neuroinflammation. doi: 10.1007/s10286-018-0577-0, Smith, M., Galbraith, W., and Blumer, J. Maternal and paternal occupational exposure to agricultural work and the risk of anencephaly. Med. Microbiol. Microbiome of the placenta in pre-eclampsia supports the role of bacteria in the multifactorial cause of pre-eclampsia. Subst. Environ. Res. (2012). Liston R, Crane J, Hamilton E, Hughes O, Kuling S, MacKinnon C, McNamara H, Milne K, Richardson B, Trpanie MJ; Working Group on Fetal Health Surveillance in Labor, Executive and Council, Maternal-Fetal Medicine Committee, Clinical Practice Guideline Committee, and ALARM Committee, Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists Canada; Canadian Medical Protection Association. Obstet. Acta Obstet. At 4 WGA, neurulation occurs: the neural folds arise from the neural plate and begin to fuse in both cranial and caudal direction, thus forming the neural tube, that is, the future central nervous system (CNS). Heart rate variability categories of fluctuation amplitude and complexity: diagnostic markers of fetal development and its disturbances. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2017-020031, Herry, C. L., Burns, P., Desrochers, A., Fecteau, G., Durosier, L. D., Cao, M., et al. (2017). doi: 10.1002/bdra.23045, Lattimore, K. A., Donn, S. M., Kaciroti, N., Kemper, A. R., Neal, C. R., and Vazquez, D. M. (2005). Fetal functional brain age assessed from universal developmental indices obtained from neuro-vegetative activity patterns. PLoS ONE 9:e104193. A., Costigan, K. A., and Voegtline, K. M. (2015). Maternal consumption of a low vitamin D diet retards metabolic and contractile development in the neonatal rat heart. Cerebral blood flow changes during vagus nerve stimulation for depression. J. Obstet. Furthermore, ANS alterations in newborns can lead to neurological dysfunctions including cerebral palsy at 2 years of age (Dimitrijevi et al., 2016). During the 1st trimester, there are significant negative correlations between the amount of maternal cigarette smoking and fHRV metrics, highlighting the disrupted temporal organization of autonomic regulation before birth (Zeskind and Gingras, 2006; Kapaya et al., 2015). doi: 10.2139/ssrn.3441806, Bernardes, J., Gonalves, H., Ayres-de-Campos, D., and Rocha, A. P. (2008). Am J Obstet Gynecol. Fetal heart rate is a vital indicator of your babys health. doi: 10.1088/1361-6579/ac010e. Little has changed in the physical devices that record fetal heart rate and contractions. At 56 WGA, the 12 cranial nerves appear (Moore et al., 2016). Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. Howland, M. A., Sandman, C. A., Davis, E. P., and Glynn, L. M. (2020). J Appl Physiol (1985). Infant Child Dev. Abnormal heart rate characteristics before clinical diagnosis of necrotizing enterocolitis. During labor, especially in cases of prematurity, there are several conditions that can cause NEC: two of these are certainly hypoxia and acidemia (Sharma and Hudak, 2013). Practice bulletin no. 78, 12621282. However, it is important to highlight that so far fHR monitoring has not been enough to prevent fetal injury during labor and, consequently, long-term complications. On the other side, properly covering incubators or using eye masks facilitate a quiet sleep state characterized by a stable respiratory function (Shiroiwa et al., 1986; Venkataraman et al., 2018). (2017). Occasionally these mechanisms are overwhelmed and fetal death or injury occurs. 1032, 6384. Nutrition during pregnancy, lactation and early childhood and its implications for maternal and long-term child health: the early nutrition project recommendations. The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors. This results in an overexposure of the fetus to maternal cortisol, that in turn may produce an overactive fetal cortisol response and may be a predisposing factor to develop disorders related to elevated HPA axis activity, which could lead to impairments in environmental stimuli adaptability by ANS in newborns (Nugent and Bale, 2015). Reprod. Doc Preview. The placental membrane microbiome is altered among subjects with spontaneous preterm birth with and without chorioamnionitis. Obes. J. Physiol. doi: 10.1016/0002-9378(81)90208-8, Starling, P., Charlton, K., McMahon, A. T., and Lucas, C. (2015). Lear CA, Galinsky R, Wassink G, Mitchell CJ, Davidson JO, Westgate JA, Bennet L, Gunn AJ. 82, 417436. 10. 1991 Nov 26;42(2):145-53. Usually, any process that causes the following conditions is capable of inducing late decelerations: Two of the most common late deceleration causes include an overactive uterus and hypotension due to epidural analgesia. 30, 698707. 2017 Feb;46(2):113-117, Teitel DF. doi: 10.1016/j.wombi.2018.12.001, Fox, G. P. P., and Matthews, T. G. (1989). 17, e165e176. Furthermore, chronic dysfunction of your placenta is sometimes brought on by maternal diseases, like diabetes, collagen-vascular disorders, or hypertension. doi: 10.1002/jlb.63.3.281, Bystrova, K. (2009). doi: 10.1016/j.ajog.2016.01.193, Prins, J. R., Eskandar, S., Eggen, B. J. L., and Scherjon, S. A. doi: 10.1016/j.mehy.2008.09.033, Cahill, A. G., Mathur, A. M., Smyser, C. D., Mckinstry, R. C., Roehl, K. A., Lpez, J. D., et al. Placenta 54, 3037. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1012911107, Seckl, J. R., and Meaney, M. J. (2021). Stimulating the vagus nerve typically produces: a. doi: 10.1038/s41372-019-0342-9, Siddiqui, S., Fifer, W. P., Ordonez-Retamar, M., Nugent, J. D., and Williams, I. Dialogues Clin. The fetal heart rate response to hypoxia: insights from animal models. The neural tube also begins to thin to form the central canal of the spinal cord (Moore et al., 2016). By examining cardiac autonomic modulation (CAM), some authors hypothesized that there might be a predominance of activation of the SNS over the PNS. Wakatsuki A, Murata Y, Ninomiya Y, Masaoka N, Tyner JG, Kutty KK. 4, 167170. Bennet L, Gunn AJ. Gynecol. Early Hum. doi: 10.1016/0002-9378(81)90015-6, Lucchini, M., Fifer, W. P., Sahni, R., and Signorini, M. G. (2016). Hill, M. A. Uncategorized. Towards a definition of life. Fetal heart rate patterns, together with GMs and REM recording, are the main factors to define the passage through fetal sleep states (Van den Bergh and Mulder, 2012), pointing out the direct relationship between vagal activity and circadian rhythm. Homeostatic plasticity is thought to be crucial for preventing synaptic saturation, thus allowing for new memory formation, and may be disrupted in several neurological disorders, including Alzheimer's disease (14) and ASD (15-18). doi: 10.1038/s41390-019-0309-8, Noben, L., Verdurmen, K. M. J., Warmerdam, G. J. J., Vullings, R., Oei, S. G., and van Laar, J. O. E. H. (2019). 27, 201209. U.S.A. 108, 34613462. Clark SL, Hamilton EF, Garite TJ, Timmins A, Warrick PA, Smith S. The limits of electronic fetal heart rate monitoring in the prevention of neonatal metabolic acidemia. Front. This seems to be associated with an increased risk for antibiotic-resistant neonatal sepsis (Mercer et al., 1999; Hantoushzadeh et al., 2020). 18, 175183. Neurosci. Maternal depression is associated with DNA methylation changes in cord blood T lymphocytes and adult hippocampi. Rev. Fetal Heart Rate Monitoring. Epidemiology 19, 851859. Fetal sleep organization: a biological precursor of self-regulation in childhood and adolescence? doi: 10.1016/S0002-9378(99)70307-8, Metzler, M., Govindan, R., Al-Shargabi, T., Vezina, G., Andescavage, N., Wang, Y., et al. Lastly, even electromagnetic field (EMF) radiations during pregnancy, due to overexposure to mobile phones, diagnostic instruments, or occupation, seem to be a risk factor for preterm delivery (Rou et al., 2016) and to have effects on ANS development (Rezk et al., 2008). Obstet. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. Some experiments even used vagotomy to eliminate the effects of the vagal system. Their proposed pathways with contraction related decelerations are illustrated in Figure 7. Nutrients 11:1823. doi: 10.3390/nu11081823, Kozar, M., Tonhajzerova, I., Mestanik, M., Matasova, K., Zibolen, M., Calkovska, A., et al. Circulation 130, 10031008. 191, 217224. Fetal heart rate variability responsiveness to maternal stress, non-invasively detected from maternal transabdominal ECG. A decrease in the heart rate The vagus nerve begins maturation 26 to 28 weeks. 1:CD010333. Physiol. Clin. Heart rate variability analysis can give paramount hints about the fetus' or newborn's well-being and allow clinicians to predict the occurrence of even deadly complications (Table 1) (Stone et al., 2013; Al-Shargabi et al., 2017; Massaro et al., 2017; Chiera et al., 2020; Frasch, 2020). doi: 10.3122/jabfm.2009.02.080057, Venkataraman, R., Kamaluddeen, M., Amin, H., and Lodha, A. Chiera, M., Cerritelli, F., Casini, A., Barsotti, N., Boschiero, D., Cavigioli, F., et al. In particular, we will study what events can interfere with the correct development of these two systems by analyzing the evidence from preclinical and clinical studies in this regard, with the aim of preventing potential complications with long-term consequences. 115, 3845. Reducing toxic stress in the neonatal intensive care unit to improve infant outcomes. However, the induction of oxytocin did not reveal cardiac complications in women with heart disease (Dogra et al., 2019). Sci. J. Physiol. Physiol. Consequently, EFM fails to identify fetuses at risk of brain injury; this is because there is no clear correlation between fetal brain injury and acidemia (Westerhuis et al., 2007; Cahill et al., 2017). As the ANS is controlled by several brain areas (e.g., amygdala, hypothalamus, insula, cingulate cortex, and several brainstem nuclei) that constitute the central autonomic network (CAN), paying attention to their development is fundamental for studying the fetal ANS. In this sense, hormones may play a crucial etiological role, as literature shows that gonadal hormones have a significant impact on the sex-dependent differentiation of the entire nervous system (Chung and Auger, 2013). Med. Fetal heart rate and motor activity associations with maternal organochlorine levels: results of an exploratory study. Natl. Several animal studies in vertebrates and mammals show that vagal NC cells ablation heavily impairs the development and function of the aforementioned tissues. Firstly, by directly affecting brain development, as the skull has a low bone density that fails in adequately protecting newborns' brain from EMF (Besset et al., 2020). doi: 10.3390/nu7085315, Zhou, L., and Xiao, X. 216, 4159. doi: 10.1088/0967-3334/30/1/N01, Woodson, R. H., Jones, N. G., da Costa Woodson, E., Pollock, S., and Evans, M. (1979). Among the possible fHRV metrics, RMSSD is a metric that allows researchers to assess what influence labor may have on the vagus nerve. Early Hum. Available online at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK513398/ (accessed April 23, 2021). It has been shown that a pattern of hyperactive uterine contractions (often caused by the administration of sOT), during the last 2 h of labor, is strongly associated with acidemia and hypoxia at birth and with fHR and fHRV alterations (Freidman and Sachtleben, 1978; Woodson et al., 1979; Cibils and Votta, 1993; Ladfors et al., 2002; Jonsson et al., 2008; Verspyck and Sentilhes, 2008; Aye et al., 2014). The fetoplacental transmission of the placental microbiome may occur through the ingestion of the amniotic fluid and via umbilical cord blood supply (Cao et al., 2014; Walker et al., 2017). Gynecol. Exposure to acoustic stimuli, through vibroacoustic stimulation (VAS), is one of the most used benchmarks for the assessment of fetal distress, since VAS induces a somato-cardiac effect mediated by the fetal behavioral states (Busnel et al., 1992). Early physiological experimentation concluded that hypertension was a key component initiating decelerations by stimulating the baroreceptors with consequent FHR slowing viaefferentsin thevagus nerve. Behav. Predictive value of electronic fetal monitoring for intrapartum fetal asphyxia with metabolic acidosis. Women Birth 32, 12. Front. Effects of obstetric analgesics and anesthetics on the neonate. J. Anat. which intrinsic homeostatic response is the fetus demonstrating . Solutions Vasoconstriction is mediated through the -adrenergic receptors in liver, kidney, skin and gut, and vasodilation is mediated through adrenergic receptors in skeletal muscle. doi: 10.1177/1099800408322942, Bruckner, M., Katheria, A. C., and Schmlzer, G. M. (2021). (2013). Novel mechanism of human fetal growth regulation: a potential role of lanugo, vernix caseosa and a second tactile system of unmyelinated low-threshold C-afferents. Fetal Pulse Oximetry in Fetal Heart Rate Monitoring. If born prematurely, newborns lose the low-frequency maternal sounds that are essential for the correct maturation of their hearing system, with negative consequences on brain maturation and speech development (McMahon et al., 2012). Prenatal alcohol exposure and fetal programming: effects on neuroendocrine and immune function. Bras. Impact of fetal alcohol exposure on body systems: a systematic review. The endotoxemia, through lipopolysaccharide molecules, seems to interfere with the cardiac pacemaker synchronization system, altering the fHRV pattern (Frasch and Giussani, 2020). (2016). doi: 10.1016/0304-3959(86)90223-X, Committee on Fetus and Newborn and Section on Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine (2016). Ther. Even if the light-dark cycle does not seem to significantly affect the fetal circadian rhythm, there are age-dependent fHRV patterns after transabdominal fetal stimulation with halogen light, similarly to the VAS (Peleg and Goldman, 1980), which seem increasingly definite in the later stages of pregnancy, when the fetal optic pathways and ANS control on the cardiac activity reach maturity (Thanaboonyawat et al., 2006). Diurnal, respiratory, and other rhythms of fetal heart rate in lambs. Decreased uteroplacental oxygen delivery was generally simulated by compressing the arteries supplying blood to the uterus or controlling the levels inspired of oxygen. Fetal heart rate variability and cerebral oxygen consumption in fetal sheep during asphyxia. doi: 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2018.02.011, Vermani, E., Mittal, R., and Weeks, A. Hypertension developed in response to compression of the umbilical arteries. 26:101221. doi: 10.1016/j.siny.2021.101221. To simulate decreased uteroplacental oxygen delivery, they applied repeated occlusions to the maternal hypogastric artery12. In this section, we will review the influences that the events that can occur in the first two stages of labor can have on the development of the vagus nerve and ANS. Am J Obstet Gynecol. Ther. 78, 17881798. Psychotropics in pregnancy: safety and other considerations. J. Obstet. In particular, metabolic and cardiovascular pathologies, like obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and preeclampsia, can disrupt vagus nerve development (Brown et al., 2008; Russell et al., 2016; Moors et al., 2020). doi: 10.1017/S2040174420000653, Chung, W. C. J., and Auger, A. P. (2013). Since yawning has been related to thermoregulatory behaviors and the ability of switching between arousal and rest states, both of which are strictly dependent on ANS functionality, the detection of yawning at this early age could represent a useful indicator of ANS development or, as suggested, brainstem functionality (Walusinski, 2006, 2010, 2014; Gallup and Eldakar, 2013). Bacterial communities found in placental tissues are associated with severe chorioamnionitis and adverse birth outcomes. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is one of the main biological systems that regulates the body's physiology. 39, 769771. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-0528.2007.01236.x, Wilder, R. L. (1998). Moreover, an impairment in vagal balance, particularly a decreased tone, might be implicated in depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, and schizophrenia (Thayer and Brosschot, 2005). In this sense, monitoring the quality and the evolutionary pattern of FMs could reveal useful insight regarding ANS, in particular, vagal maturation. Prenatal maternal psychological distress and fetal developmental trajectories: associations with infant temperament. Obstet. The patterns of cytokine response and the neuroimmune physiology of the fetus and the placenta mirror the maternal ones throughout pregnancy (Sherer et al., 2017, 2018; Prins et al., 2018; Peterson et al., 2020). It reaches a stable set point only when its control functions meet the conditions on convexity and relative goals described in the text. Inflammatory cytokines in the pathogenesis of periventricular leukomalacia. Furthermore, chronic dysfunction of your placenta is sometimes brought on by maternal diseases, like diabetes, collagen-vascular disorders, or hypertension. Development of extrinsic innervation in the abdominal intestines of human embryos. Raczyska, A., and Gulczyska, E. (2019). A., Thorp, J. Methods Mol. doi: 10.1016/j.jgyn.2007.11.011, Viscomi, C. M., Hood, D. D., Melone, P. J., and Eisenach, J. C. (1990). A dysregulation in CRH production, secondary to various maternal conditions, such as hypoxia, increased inflammatory cytokines and glucocorticoids, stress, preeclampsia, and eclampsia, may lead to altered neurodevelopmental patterns of these fetal structures (Allen, 2001; Bale, 2016; Sheng et al., 2020). B., de Waard, M., et al. Res. Pediatrics 144::e20190128. Effect of tocolytic drugs on fetal heart rate variability: a systematic review. J Physiol. Education 10:188. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.00188, Heazell, A. E. P., Budd, J., Li, M., Cronin, R., Bradford, B., McCowan, L. M. E., et al. Pediatr.
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