Amha, A. An alternative explanation could be that positions further away from the speaker are (almost) unlimited in the sense that there is no clear and unambiguous natural boundary or limit (e.g., if we climb up a mountain we can see even further away). The term 'gay' has undergone a process of semantic reclamation by LGBTQIA people. 23, 59106. The structure of Muna demonstratives (van den Berg, 1989/2013, p. 89). It may also be referred to as semantic amelioration or semantic elevation. Typol. Which is not an example of a potential socio-cultural factor? Eipo and Andi and have all three types of demonstratives (Tables 2, 5); Manambu has UP and DOWN (Table 8), and Muna has just UP (Table 1). Upload unlimited documents and save them online. 42, 122. Semantics is the term given to the study of the meaning of words, Semantic change, is the term given to how the meanings of words can change over time. Sign up to highlight and take notes. Sociocultural factors can influence narrowing as a major shift in a country's politics or social landscape will lead to semantic changes. Doctoral dissertation, University of Leiden, Leiden. Table 6. A Grammar of Makalero: A Papuan Language of East Timor. What is an example of semantic reclamation? A psycholinguistic exploration of a primary metaphor, in Trends in Cognitive Linguistics: Theoretical and Applied Models, eds J. Valenzuela, A. Rojo, and C. Soriano (Frankfurt: Peter Lang), 3150. First, there are many mountainous areas in the world without languages that have elevational demonstratives (e.g., almost all languages spoken in the American Cordillera, the Alps, the Great Dividing Range in Australia, the Atlas Mountains in North Africa, the slopes of the Great Escarpment in Southern Africa, and many more). A Grammar of Lepcha. In Sanzhi, the projection occurs not only within the local, peripersonal sphere, for example, items on a table in front of the speaker are located as UP when they are further away and DOWN when they are closer to the speaker (but always in front of the speaker). Broadening: Meaning & Examples | StudySmarter English Lexis and Semantics Broadening Broadening Broadening 5 Paragraph Essay A Hook for an Essay APA Body Paragraph Context Essay Outline Evidence Harvard Hedging Language Used in Academic Writing MHRA Referencing MLA Opinion Opinion vs Fact Plagiarism Quotations Restate Summarize Summary Works Cited What are two examples of extralinguistic factors? This example sentence uses the word 'sick' in the sense of 'mentally unwell, ill'. For example, the verb 'to starve' originally meant 'to die'; however, it was frequently used in sentences about hunger. In this language, uphill location is at the same time away from the river, and upriver (upstream) is along the river and thus orthogonal to uphill. Cognition 124, 2535. 57, 145. Nordquist, Richard. When you visit the site, Dotdash Meredith and its partners may store or retrieve information on your browser, mostly in the form of cookies. See Examples and Observations below. 2 - An example of semantic broadening is 'Jazz.'. As explained in the Section Materials and Methods, the sample is a convenience sample, but based on a rather systematic and comprehensive survey of all areas of the world and more than half of the language families (Killian, unpublished). In Old English, the word dizzy meant what? True or False: Amelioration is more common than pejoration. A Grammar of Tulil. The meaning of the word changed, referring to someone's way of thinking instead. Everything you need for your studies in one place. These are extralinguistic causes (not involving language) and linguistic causes (involving language). Elevation. G. Senft (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 197220. The adverbial context can be considered the minimal context of use probably attested for all languages in my sample. What are the four types of semantic change? For instance, terms that express ACROSS can be topographic and refer to locations across a valley at the same altitude of the opposite mountain as in Yakkha (12), or across the river as in Tanacross (13). . 3:212. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00212, Bryant, F. J., Tversky, B., and Franklin, N. (1992). These contexts are (i) pronominal use, (ii) adnominal use (i.e., as determiner), (iii) spatial and manner adverbial use, and (iv) identificational use in copula and non-verbal clauses. doi: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2013.12.001, Denny, J. P. (1982). For instance, the speaker who uttered (19) is located in a village at around 100 m above sea level and Itanagar, where he would like to go, is situated at around 440 m and thus higher, and to the south but not visible from his village. It now specifically refers to devices that are created to fulfil a specific purpose. Identify your study strength and weaknesses. Earn points, unlock badges and level up while studying. The three body planes and axes. Nie wieder prokastinieren mit unseren Lernerinnerungen. This can include a word becoming taboo, or being linked with a taboo within the culture. Typically this process is caused by linguistic factors, such as ellipses, and can take many years to occur. Because other forms need further research they will only be mentioned in passing. Metonymy occurs when the name of an object is substituted for an attribute or adjective. Dixon, R. M. W. (1972). The same applies to many other animals and plants with an upright position (e.g., trees).17. Later the word 'hlafweard' shortened - first it became 'hlaford' and then by the 13th century it was simply 'lord'. Let me show you an example to make this a little more concrete. Linguist. Keywords: elevation, vertical axis, space, deixis, time, demonstrative pronouns, Citation: Forker D (2020) Elevation as a Grammatical and Semantic Category of Demonstratives. 89, 121. Adelaar, W. (2019). Based on the descriptions that I consulted it is not always possible to determine if an elevational system falls into the one or the other category. So far, I did not find any language with both LEVEL and ACROSS elevational demonstratives, so these two values seem to exclude each other (although semantically ACROSS can be considered a sub-category of LEVEL). They can also be general as in Usan and applied in the local domain (14). J. Bril, I. However, those languages constitute a minority. What did 'pretty' mean in Middle English? Friedman, V. (1994). In the above sentence, the word 'attitude', which used to simply refer to a person's position and state of mind, is now associated with negative behaviour. The degree to which the syntactic contexts are expressed by specialized, formally distinct elevational demonstratives varies. Everything you need for your studies in one place. Semantic broadening is the antonym of semantic narrowing, as the process that takes place is the opposite. Formerly the word meant learned men in theology, law, and in many other fields besides medicine, but nowadays it is applied only to the practitioner of the healing art, whether having a University degree or not. Mapping spatial frames of reference onto time: a review of theoretical accounts and empirical findings. Imai, S. (2003). The word 'knight' comes from the Old English word 'cniht' which meant 'boy, youth, servant, attendant.' Steinhauer, H. (2014). The elevational values in both subsets are obligatorily co-expressed with the deictic meaning DISTAL. To put it simply, pejoration is the opposite of amelioration. (iii) Optional co-occurrence of demonstrative morphemes with elevational morphemes in a single word-form. There are two types of landmarks outside and generally further away from the speaker that naturally expand along the vertical dimension, namely topographical contour (i.e., mountains including hills or large rocks) and hydrological contour (i.e., rivers and creeks).10 The vertical dimension of rivers might not be obvious at first glance. When the referent is not potentially visible and also not located on the path of a nearby river, but is separate from the speaker by at least a mountain range (i.e., global scale), then the same items function as labels for cardinal directions (19), and elevational differences are ignored. 404419). Other languages are Makalero, Bantawa, Baskeet, and Sougb. Among the languages with a three-way distance contrast (88 languages in Diessel, 2013), around one third are so-called person-oriented or person-based systems. On the horizontal plane, the genuinely vertical dimension can, in principle, be translated into FURTHER/NEARER (or FRONT/BACK) along the sagittal axis (Bender and Beller, 2014). . Examples (1)(4) illustrate all four contexts. Most of the elevational demonstratives take further optional or obligatory derivational and/or inflectional suffixes (most commonly gender, number, case, nominalizers or adverbializers). If a word's original meaning is unclear, it is given new meaning. The data for this paper mainly come from grammatical descriptions of some 50 languages with elevational demonstratives from a range of different language families across the globe. "Amelioration (word meanings)." Holton, G. (2018). The word 'attitude' is an example of pejoration. One example of semantic change would be the word 'hound . Blagar, Galo (26) and all East Caucasian languages in my sample (Avar, Lak, Andi, and Sanzhi Dargwa) have not only spatial elevational demonstratives, but also a further class of elevational demonstratives that function as manner adverbs, e.g., Blagar do-la (up.there-as) like that/those up there (not necessarily visible) (Steinhauer, 2014, p. 159). In Tidore, the elevational deictic verbs ine upward and tora downward are used in two temporal expressions, namely mulamula ine early morning, at sunrise (morning + upward) and lobino tora early evening, shortly after the sunset prayer (lit. Have all your study materials in one place. Bachelors thesis, Australian National University, Canberra. Table 8. Fig. Grimes, C. E. (1991). I then discuss metaphorical extensions of elevational demonstratives to non-spatial uses such as temporal and social deixis. INWARD vs. OUTWARD (or INTERIOR vs. The same is true for the subclass of elevational demonstratives, but with a further complication because elevation constitutes an additional semantic component on top of the basic demonstrative meaning (which is distance-based and/or person-based). Co-expression of elevational and basic deictic demonstrative meaning at the synchronic level occurs in Muna (Table 1), Daga (Table 9), Yakkha (Table 11), Iaai (32), (33), Jahai, Abui, Tidore, Sougb, Tulil, Hatam, Fore, Usan, Yale, Dadibi, and Zayse. Note that another adjective - 'terribly' - that derives from the same source as 'terrific', has also been ameliorated with time. From Space to Time: Temporal Adverbials in the Worlds Languages. The Jahai multi-term demonstrative system: whats spatial about it? in Demonstratives in Cross-Linguistic Perspective, eds S. Levinson, S. Cutfield, M. Dunn, N. Enfield, and S. Meira (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 361380. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI. The Maale Language. Most of the meanings are well-known from the literature on demonstratives (see, e.g., the lists by Diessel, 1999, p. 51; Dixon, 2003; Imai, 2003; Levinson, 2018, p. 35). The reason for the relative rareness of person-based elevational demonstratives is probably unnecessary specificity. Forker, D. (2019). Through the process of amelioration a word that used to have a negative meaning develops a positive one. A grammar sketch of Sougb, in Languages of the Eastern Birds Head, ed. Spatial deixis in Muna (Sulawesi), in Studies in Austronesian and Papuan Languages, ed. A minimal system of elevational demonstratives consists of one item for UP or one item for DOWN, but far more common is to have one term for each of the values UP and DOWN. 94, 187). Elevation in the spatial deictic systems of Alor-Pantar languages, in The Alor- Pantar Languages: History and Typology, ed. On the expression of spatio-temporal relations in language, in Universals of Human Language, Vol. Semantically, elevational demonstratives are deictic expressions that also convey elevational or verticality distinctions. The expression 'terrific headache' as in 'severe headache' first appeared in 1809. Broadening is the opposite. Which is not an example of semantic change? I then propose the elevational hierarchy along which the basic elevational meaning categories can be ordered. In general, demonstratives can be bound and unbound forms, whereby the bound forms are normally clitics and not affixes (Diessel, 1999, p. 2225). . Amelioration is ____ common than pejoration. Amelioration occurs for different extralinguistic reasons, such as cultural factors and changes in society over time. This may be due to extralinguistic causes (social/historical causes) or linguistic causes (involving language). A Grammar of Bantawa. However, over the years, the meaning of this word broadened to refer to any type of work or job. Amelioration elevates a word's meaning over time. From this, we can see that amelioration is a process that can take centuries to occur. The term 'semantic shift' can also be used to refer to the changing meanings of words. Doornenbal, M. (2009). However, this cross-categorical formal flexibility is not the rule. Deixis and demonstratives, in An International Handbook of Natural Language Meaning, Vol. They seem to be absolute because normally gravity determines the direction and thus what is up and down, but the same is true for relational adverbials referring to the vertical axis. Elevation and spatial orientation in Alaska, in Paper Presented at the 52th Annual Meeting of the SLE, Leipzig. In a number of languages, the elevational demonstratives are clearly diachronically complex, but synchronically the elevational part cannot be separated or is not treated as a bound root, affix, or clitic. Amelioration: I'm having a lovely time - today is a nice day! For example, demonstratives in the Athabaskan language Tanacross (Alaska) morphologically and semantically combine deictic meaning (distality) with specific topographic and elevational morphemes. The structure of adnominal and pronominal demonstratives in Andi (Verhees, 2019). In order to be able to accomplish a detailed typological study we need more comprehensive descriptions of language-particular systems that are based on natural corpus data such that not only formal properties are covered but also the actual use and possibly frequency estimations can be detected. For this paper I surveyed elevational demonstratives in 50 languages from 20 language families plus one isolate. Spatial reference in weightlessness: perceptual factors and mental representations. It is the process in which the word's meaning changes from negative to positive over time. Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA. Haiman, J. doi: 10.1086/465747. The only language I found so far that contradicts this otherwise robust cross-linguistic tendency is Yakkha. Narrowing takes place over a short period of time. It may also be referred to as semantic amelioration or semantic elevation. Doctoral dissertation, La Trobe University, Melbourne. These are: narrowing, broadening, amelioration, pejoration, and semantic reclamation. Similarly, by means of the second topographic system of Yakkha the uphill and downhill elevationals can be mapped onto the human body and teeth are then referred to as uphill, i.e., upper teeth and downhill lower teeth irrespectively of their actual position (even when a person is not in the canonical upright position). When semantic reclamation occurs the word does not lose its pejorative meaning. Many of the languages have been identified through the works by Diessel (1999); Post (2011, 2017); Sarvasy (2014), and Breunesse (2019). Today 'pretty' refers to someone or something that is beautiful. Evidence for sociotopography. 349350). For example, in Shakespeare's time, actors were living in the low class of society and were looked down upon. For example, the original meaning of ambassador was . Seaward/landward (Iaai, Tidore, Tanacross, and Koyukon). Distance contrasts in demonstratives, in The World Atlas of Language Structures Online, eds M. S. Dryer and M. Haspelmath (Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology). (2004). The distinction between general and topographic elevational demonstratives applies not just to the UP and DOWN meanings but also to LEVEL and ACROSS. This type of co-expression or combination of distance and elevation in demonstratives is not obligatory because there are languages such as Makalero (Table 3), Hatam, Iaai, Hua, Tidore, and Baskeet (8), in which elevational demonstratives are unmarked for distance and cannot be co-expressed with distance.
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